Canada

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Jump to: navigation, search
For other uses of "Canada" or "Canadian", see Canada (disambiguation) and Canadian (disambiguation).
Canada
Flag of Canada Royal coat of arms of Canada
Flag Royal coat of arms
Motto: A Mari Usque Ad Mare  (Latin)
"From Sea to Sea"
Anthem: "O Canada"
Royal anthem: "God Save the Queen"
Location of Canada
Capital Ottawa
45°24′N 75°40′W / 45.4°N 75.667°W / 45.4; -75.667
Largest city Toronto
Official languages English and French
Recognised regional languages Inuktitut, Inuinnaqtun, Cree, Dëne Sųłiné, Gwich’in, Inuvialuktun, Slavey and Tłįchǫ Yatiì[1]
Ethnic groups  80.0% White/European (English, French, Scottish, Irish, German, others)[2]
4.0% South Asian
3.9% Chinese
3.8% Aboriginal
3.3% Other Asian
2.5% Black/African
2.5% Others[3]
Demonym Canadian, Canadien/Canadienne (French ancestry), Canuck (informal)
Government Federal parliamentary democracy and constitutional monarchy[4]
 -  Monarch HM Queen Elizabeth II
 -  Governor General Michaëlle Jean
 -  Prime Minister Stephen Harper
Legislature Parliament
 -  Upper House Senate
 -  Lower House House of Commons
Establishment
 -  British North America Acts July 1, 1867 
 -  Statute of Westminster December 11, 1931 
 -  Canada Act April 17, 1982 
Area
 -  Total 9,984,670 km2 (2nd)
3,854,085 sq mi 
 -  Water (%) 8.92 (891,163 km²/344,080 mi²)
Population
 -  2009 estimate 33,668,000 [5] (36th)
 -  2006 census 31,612,897 
 -  Density 3.2/km2 (219th)
8.3/sq mi
GDP (PPP) 2008 estimate
 -  Total $1,303 trillion[6] (14th)
 -  Per capita $39,183[6] (13th)
GDP (nominal) 2008 estimate
 -  Total $1,511 trillion[6] (9th)
 -  Per capita $45,428[6] (18th)
Gini  32.1 (2005)[7] 
HDI (2006) ▲ 0.967 (high) (3rd)
Currency Dollar ($) (CAD)
Time zone (UTC−3.5 to −8)
 -  Summer (DST)  (UTC−2.5 to −7)
Date formats dd-mm-yyyy, mm-dd-yyyy, and yyyy-mm-dd (CE)
Drives on the Right
Internet TLD .ca
Calling code +1
Canada portal

Canada (pronounced /ˈkænədə/) is a country occupying most of northern North America, extending from the Atlantic Ocean in the east to the Pacific Ocean in the west and northward into the Arctic Ocean. It is the world's second largest country by total area[7] and shares the world's longest common border with the United States to the south and northwest.

The land occupied by Canada was inhabited for millennia by various groups of aboriginal people. Beginning in the late 15th century, British and French expeditions explored, and later settled along, the Atlantic coast. France ceded nearly all of its colonies in North America in 1763 after the Seven Years' War. In 1867, with the union of three British North American colonies through Confederation, Canada was formed as a federal dominion of four provinces.[8][9][10] This began an accretion of additional provinces and territories and a process of increasing autonomy from the United Kingdom, highlighted by the Statute of Westminster in 1931 and culminating in the Canada Act in 1982, which severed the vestiges of legal dependence on the British parliament.

A federation comprising ten provinces and three territories, Canada is a parliamentary democracy and a constitutional monarchy, with Queen Elizabeth II as its head of state. It is a bilingual and multicultural country, with both English and French as official languages both at the federal level and in the province of New Brunswick. Technologically advanced and industrialized, Canada maintains a diversified economy that is heavily reliant upon its abundant natural resources and upon trade—particularly with the United States, with which Canada has had a long and complex relationship. It is a member of the G8, NATO, OECD, WTO, the Commonwealth of Nations, the Francophonie, and the United Nations.

Contents

[hide]

Etymology

Main article: Name of Canada
Jacques Cartier

The name Canada comes from a St. Lawrence Iroquoian word, kanata, meaning "village" or "settlement". In 1535, indigenous inhabitants of the present-day Quebec City region used the word to direct French explorer Jacques Cartier towards the village of Stadacona.[11] Cartier later used the word Canada to refer not only to that particular village, but also the entire area subject to Donnacona (the chief at Stadacona); by 1545, European books and maps had begun referring to this region as Canada.[12]

From the early 17th century onwards, that part of New France that lay along the Saint Lawrence River and the northern shores of the Great Lakes was named Canada, an area that was later split into two British colonies, Upper Canada and Lower Canada, until their re-unification as the Province of Canada in 1841. Upon Confederation in 1867, the name Canada was adopted as the legal name for the new country,[13] and Dominion was conferred as the country's title;[14] combined, the term Dominion of Canada was in common usage until the 1950s. Thereafter, as Canada asserted its political autonomy from Britain, the federal government increasingly used simply Canada on state documents and treaties, a change that was reflected in the renaming of the national holiday from Dominion Day to Canada Day in 1982.[15]

History

Main articles: History of Canada, Timeline of Canadian history, and Territorial evolution of Canada
The fur trade was Canada's most important industry until the 19th century.

First Nation and Inuit traditions maintain that indigenous people have resided on their lands since the beginning of time, while archaeological studies support a human presence in the northern Yukon from 26,500 years ago, and in southern Ontario from 9,500 years ago.[16][17] Europeans first arrived when the Vikings settled briefly at L'Anse aux Meadows around AD 1000; following the failure of that colony, there was no further attempt at North American exploration until 1497, when John Cabot explored Canada's Atlantic coast for England,[18] followed by Jacques Cartier in 1534 for France.[19]

French explorer Samuel de Champlain arrived in 1603 and established the first permanent European settlements at Port Royal in 1605 and Quebec City in 1608. These would become, respectively, the capitals of Acadia and Canada. Among French colonists of New France, Canadiens extensively settled the Saint Lawrence River valley, Acadians settled the present-day Maritimes, while French fur traders and Catholic missionaries explored the Great Lakes, Hudson Bay, and the Mississippi watershed to Louisiana. The French and Iroquois Wars broke out over control of the fur trade.

The English established fishing outposts in Newfoundland around 1610 and colonized the Thirteen Colonies to the south. A series of four Intercolonial Wars erupted between 1689 and 1763. Mainland Nova Scotia came under British rule with the Treaty of Utrecht (1713); the Treaty of Paris (1763) ceded Canada and most of New France to Britain following the Seven Years' War.

The Death of General Wolfe on the Plains of Abraham at Quebec in 1759, part of the Seven Years' War.

The Royal Proclamation (1763) carved the Province of Quebec out of New France and annexed Cape Breton Island to Nova Scotia. It also restricted the language and religious rights of French Canadians. In 1769, St. John's Island (now Prince Edward Island) became a separate colony. To avert conflict in Quebec, the Quebec Act of 1774 expanded Quebec's territory to the Great Lakes and Ohio Valley and re-established the French language, Catholic faith, and French civil law in Quebec; it angered many residents of the Thirteen Colonies, helping to fuel the American Revolution.[20] The Treaty of Paris (1783) recognized American independence and ceded territories south of the Great Lakes to the United States. Approximately 50,000 United Empire Loyalists fled the United States to Canada.[21] New Brunswick was split from Nova Scotia as part of a reorganization of Loyalist settlements in the Maritimes. To accommodate English-speaking Loyalists in Quebec, the Constitutional Act of 1791 divided the province into French-speaking Lower Canada and English-speaking Upper Canada, granting each their own elected Legislative Assembly.

Canada (Upper and Lower) was the main front in the War of 1812 between the United States and the British Empire. The defence of Canada contributed to a sense of unity among British North Americans. Large-scale immigration to Canada began in 1815 from Britain and Ireland. The timber industry surpassed the fur trade in importance in the early nineteenth century.

Fathers of Confederation by Robert Harris, an amalgamation of Charlottetown and Quebec conference scenes.

The desire for responsible government resulted in the aborted Rebellions of 1837. The Durham Report subsequently recommended responsible government and the assimilation of French Canadians into British culture.[22] The Act of Union 1840 merged The Canadas into a United Province of Canada. French and English Canadians worked together in the Assembly to reinstate French rights. Responsible government was established for all British North American provinces by 1849.[23][24]

The signing of the Oregon Treaty by Britain and the United States in 1846 ended the Oregon boundary dispute, extending the border westward along the 49th parallel and paving the way for British colonies on Vancouver Island (1849) and in British Columbia (1858). Canada launched a series of western exploratory expeditions to claim Rupert's Land and the Arctic region. The Canadian population grew rapidly because of high birth rates; British immigration was offset by emigration to the United States, especially by French Canadians' moving to New England.

An animated map, exhibiting the growth and change of Canada's provinces and territories since Confederation.

Following several constitutional conferences, the Constitution Act, 1867 brought about Confederation creating "one Dominion under the name of Canada" on July 1, 1867, with four provinces: Ontario, Quebec, Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick.[25] Canada assumed control of Rupert's Land and the North-Western Territory to form the Northwest Territories, where the Métis' grievances ignited the Red River Rebellion and the creation of the province of Manitoba in July 1870. British Columbia and Vancouver Island (which had united in 1866) and the colony of Prince Edward Island joined the Confederation in 1871 and 1873, respectively.

Prime Minister John A. Macdonald's Conservative government established a national policy of tariffs to protect nascent Canadian manufacturing industries. To open the West, the government sponsored construction of three trans-continental railways (most notably the Canadian Pacific Railway), opened the prairies to settlement with the Dominion Lands Act, and established the North-West Mounted Police to assert its authority over this territory. In 1898, after the Klondike Gold Rush in the Northwest Territories, the Canadian government created the Yukon territory. Under Liberal Prime Minister Wilfrid Laurier, continental European immigrants settled the prairies, and Alberta and Saskatchewan became provinces in 1905.

Canadian soldiers won the Battle of Vimy Ridge in 1917.

Canada automatically entered World War I in 1914 with Britain's declaration of war, sending volunteers to the Western Front, who later became part of the Canadian Corps. The Corps played a substantial role in the Battle of Vimy Ridge and other major battles of the war. The Conscription Crisis of 1917 erupted when conservative Prime Minister Robert Borden brought in compulsory military service over the objection of French-speaking Quebecers. In 1919, Canada joined the League of Nations independently of Britain; in 1931, the Statute of Westminster affirmed Canada's independence.

The BC Regiment, DCO, marching in New Westminster, 1940. 1.1 million Canadians served in WWII. Canadian servicemen played a major part in the D-Day landings of 6 June 1944.

The Great Depression brought economic hardship to all of Canada. In response, the Co-operative Commonwealth Federation (CCF) in Alberta and Saskatchewan enacted many measures of a welfare state as pioneered by Tommy Douglas in the 1940s and 1950s. Canada declared war on Germany independently during World War II under Liberal Prime Minister William Lyon Mackenzie King, three days after Britain. The first Canadian Army units arrived in Britain in December 1939.[26] Canadian troops played important roles in the Battle of the Atlantic, the failed 1942 Dieppe Raid in France, the Allied invasion of Italy, the D-Day landings, the Battle of Normandy, and the Battle of the Scheldt in 1944. Canada is credited by the Netherlands for having provided asylum and protection for its monarchy during the war after the country was occupied, and the Netherlands credits Canada for its leadership and major contribution to the liberation of Netherlands from Nazi Germany. The Canadian economy boomed as industry manufactured military materiel for Canada, Britain, China, and the Soviet Union. Despite another Conscription Crisis in Quebec, Canada finished the war with one of the largest armed forces in the world.[26] In 1945, during the war, Canada became one of the founding members of the United Nations.

This growth, combined with the policies of successive Liberal governments, led to the emergence of a new Canadian identity, marked by the adoption of the current Maple Leaf Flag in 1965, the implementation of official bilingualism in 1969, and official multiculturalism in 1971. Socially democratic programmes were also founded, such as universal health care, the Canada Pension Plan, and Canada Student Loans, though provincial governments, particularly Quebec and Alberta, opposed many of these as incursions into their jurisdictions. Finally, another series of constitutional conferences resulted in the patriation of Canada's constitution from the United Kingdom, concurrent with the creation of the Charter of Rights and Freedoms.[27] At the same time, Quebec was undergoing profound social and economic changes through the Quiet Revolution, giving birth to a nationalist movement in the province[28] and the more radical Front de libération du Québec (FLQ), whose actions ignited the October Crisis in 1970. A decade later, an unsuccessful referendum on sovereignty-association was held in 1980, after which attempts at constitutional amendment failed in 1989. A second referendum followed in 1995, in which sovereignty was rejected by a slimmer margin of just 50.6% to 49.4%.[29] In 1997, the Supreme Court ruled that unilateral secession by a province would be unconstitutional, and the Clarity Act was passed by parliament, outlining the terms of a negotiated departure from Confederation.[29]

After various peacekeeping missions between the 1950s and 1990s, Canada engaged in the NATO-led Afghan War in 2001, though Canada subsequently refused to participate in the 2003 invasion of Iraq. At home, following various legal battles, as well as some violent confrontations at Oka, Ipperwash, and Gustafsen Lake, in 1999 Canada recognized Inuit self-government with the creation of Nunavut, settled Nisga'a claims in British Columbia, and in 2008, the Prime Minister apologised for the creation of residential schools by previous governments.

Government and politics

Main articles: Government of Canada, Politics of Canada, Monarchy of Canada, and List of Canadian political parties
Parliament Hill, Ottawa

Canada has a parliamentary government with strong democratic traditions. Parliament is made up of the Crown, an elected House of Commons, and an appointed Senate.[30][31][32] Each Member of Parliament in the House of Commons is elected by simple plurality in an electoral district or riding. General elections must be called by the Prime Minister within five years of the previous election, or may be triggered by the government's losing a confidence vote in the House. Members of the Senate, whose seats are apportioned on a regional basis, are chosen by the Prime Minister and formally appointed by the Governor General and serve until age 75. Four parties had representatives elected to the federal parliament in the 2008 elections: the Conservative Party of Canada (governing party), the Liberal Party of Canada (Official Opposition), the New Democratic Party (NDP), and the Bloc Québécois. The list of historical parties with elected representation is substantial.

Canada's federalist structure divides government responsibilities between the federal government and the ten provinces. Unicameral provincial legislatures operate in parliamentary fashion similar to the House of Commons. Canada's three territories also have legislatures, but with fewer constitutional responsibilities than the provinces and with some structural differences (for example, the Legislative Assembly of Nunavut has no parties and operates on consensus).

The chamber of the House of Commons.

Canada is also a constitutional monarchy, with The Crown acting as a symbolic or ceremonial executive.[33][34] The Crown consists of Queen Elizabeth II (legal head of state) and her appointed viceroys, the Governor General (acting head of state), and provincial Lieutenant-Governors, who perform most of the monarch's ceremonial roles.[35][36][37][38][39] The political executive consists of the Prime Minister (head of government) and the Cabinet and carries out the day-to-day decisions of government.[40][41][42][43] The Cabinet is made up of ministers usually selected from the House of Commons and headed by the Prime Minister,[44][45][46] who is normally the leader of the party that holds the confidence of the House of Commons. The Prime Minister's Office (PMO) is one of the most powerful institutions in government,[47][48] initiating most legislation for parliamentary approval and selecting, besides other Cabinet members, Senators, federal court judges, heads of Crown corporations and government agencies, and the Governor General. The Crown formally approves parliamentary legislation and the Prime Minister's appointments.[49] The leader of the party with the second most seats usually becomes the Leader of the Opposition and is part of an adversarial parliamentary system that keeps the government in check. Michaëlle Jean has served as Governor General since September 27, 2005; Stephen Harper, leader of the Conservative Party, has been Prime Minister since February 6, 2006; and Michael Ignatieff, leader of the Liberal Party of Canada, has been Leader of the Opposition since December 10, 2008.

Law

Main article: Law of Canada
See also: Court system of Canada
The Supreme Court of Canada in Ottawa, west of Parliament Hill.

The constitution is the supreme law of the country,[50] and consists of written text and unwritten conventions.[51] The Constitution Act, 1867 (known as the British North America (BNA) Act prior to 1982), affirmed governance based on parliamentary precedent "similar in principle to that of the United Kingdom" and divided powers between the federal and provincial governments; the Statute of Westminster, 1931, granted full autonomy; and the Constitution Act, 1982, added the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms, which guarantees basic rights and freedoms that usually cannot be overridden by any level of government—though a notwithstanding clause allows the federal parliament and provincial legislatures to override certain sections of the Charter for a period of five years—and added a constitutional amending formula.[52]

Canada's judiciary plays an important role in interpreting laws and has the power to strike down laws that violate the Constitution. The Supreme Court of Canada is the highest court and final arbiter and has been led by the Right Honourable Madam Chief Justice Beverley McLachlin, P.C. since 2000. Its nine members are appointed by the Governor General on the advice of the Prime Minister and Minister of Justice. All judges at the superior and appellate levels are appointed after consultation with nongovernmental legal bodies. The federal cabinet also appoints justices to superior courts at the provincial and territorial levels. Judicial posts at the lower provincial and territorial levels are filled by their respective governments.

Common law prevails everywhere except in Quebec, where civil law predominates. Criminal law is solely a federal responsibility and is uniform throughout Canada. Law enforcement, including criminal courts, is a provincial responsibility, but in rural areas of all provinces except Ontario and Quebec, policing is contracted to the federal Royal Canadian Mounted Police.

Foreign relations and military

Main articles: Foreign relations of Canada, Canadian Forces, and Military history of Canada
A Canadian CF-18 flies off the coast of Hawaii
Two warships of the Canadian Navy — the Halifax-class frigate HMCS Vancouver (FFH 331) (centre) and the Iroquois-class destroyer HMCS Algonquin (DDG 283) — at Pearl Harbor upon departing to participate in RIMPAC, the world's largest international maritime exercise.

Canada and the United States share the world's longest undefended border, co-operate on military campaigns and exercises, and are each other's largest trading partner. Canada has nevertheless maintained an independent foreign policy, most notably maintaining full relations with Cuba and declining to participate in the Iraq War. Canada also maintains historic ties to the United Kingdom and France and to other former British and French colonies through Canada's membership in the Commonwealth of Nations and the Francophonie. Canada is noted for having a strong and positive relationship with the Netherlands (which Canada helped liberate during World War II), and the Dutch government traditionally gives tulips, a symbol of the Netherlands, to Canada each year in remembrance of Canada's contribution to its liberation.

Canada currently employs a professional, volunteer military force of about 65,000 regular and 26,000 reserve personnel.[53] The unified Canadian Forces (CF) comprise the army, navy, and air force. Major CF equipment deployed includes 1,400 armoured fighting vehicles, 34 combat vessels, and 861 aircraft.[54]

Strong attachment to the British Empire and Commonwealth in English Canada led to major participation in British military efforts in the Second Boer War, the First World War, and the Second World War. Since then, Canada has been an advocate for multilateralism, making efforts to resolve global issues in collaboration with other nations.[55][56] Canada was a founding member of the United Nations in 1945 and of NATO in 1949. During the Cold War, Canada was a major contributor to UN forces in the Korean War and founded the North American Aerospace Defense Command (NORAD) in cooperation with the United States to defend against aerial attacks from the Soviet Union.

Canada has played a leading role in UN peacekeeping efforts. During the Suez Crisis of 1956, then-future Prime Minister Lester B. Pearson eased tensions by proposing the inception of the United Nations Peacekeeping Force.[57] Canada has since served in 50 peacekeeping missions, including every UN peacekeeping effort until 1989,[58] and has since maintained forces in international missions in Rwanda, the former Yugoslavia, and elsewhere.

Canada joined the Organization of American States (OAS) in 1990; Canada hosted the OAS General Assembly in Windsor, Ontario, in June 2000 and the third Summit of the Americas in Quebec City in April 2001. Canada seeks to expand its ties to Pacific Rim economies through membership in the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation forum (APEC).

Since 2001, Canada has had troops deployed in Afghanistan as part of the U.S. stabilization force and the UN-authorized, NATO-commanded International Security Assistance Force. Canada has committed to withdraw from Afghanistan by 2011[59], by which time it will have spent an estimated total of $11.3 billion on the mission. [60]

Canada and the U.S. continue to integrate state and provincial agencies to strengthen security long the Canada-United States border through the Western Hemisphere Travel Initiative.[61] Canada's Disaster Assistance Response Team (DART) has participated in three major relief efforts in recent years; the two-hundred-member team has been deployed in relief operations after the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake in South Asia, Hurricane Katrina in 2005, and the Kashmir earthquake in October 2005.

In February 2007, Canada, Italy, Britain, Norway, and Russia announced their funding commitments to launch a $1.5 billion project to help develop vaccines they said could save millions of lives in poor nations, and called on others to join them.[62] In August 2007, Canadian sovereignty in Arctic waters was challenged following a Russian expedition that planted a Russian flag at the seabed at the North Pole. Canada has considered that area to be sovereign territory since 1925.[63]

Provinces and territories

Main articles: Provinces and territories of Canada and Canadian federalism
A geopolitical map of Canada, exhibiting its ten provinces and three territories.

Canada is a federation composed of ten provinces and three territories; in turn, these may be grouped into regions. Western Canada consists of British Columbia and the three Prairie provinces (Alberta, Saskatchewan, and Manitoba).[64] Central Canada consists of Quebec and Ontario. Atlantic Canada consists of the three Maritime provinces (New Brunswick, Prince Edward Island, and Nova Scotia), along with Newfoundland and Labrador. Eastern Canada refers to Central Canada and Atlantic Canada together. Three territories (Yukon, Northwest Territories, and Nunavut) make up Northern Canada. Provinces have more autonomy than territories. Each has its own provincial or territorial symbols.[65]

The provinces are responsible for most of Canada's social programs (such as health care, education, and welfare) and together collect more revenue than the federal government, an almost unique structure among federations in the world. Using its spending powers, the federal government can initiate national policies in provincial areas, such as the Canada Health Act; the provinces can opt out of these, but rarely do so in practice. Equalization payments are made by the federal government to ensure that reasonably uniform standards of services and taxation are kept between the richer and poorer provinces.

Geography and climate

Main articles: Geography of Canada and Temperature in Canada
A satellite composite image of Canada. Boreal forests prevail on the rocky Canadian Shield. Ice and tundra are prominent in the Arctic. Glaciers are visible in the Canadian Rockies and Coast Mountains. Flat and fertile prairies facilitate agriculture. The Great Lakes feed the Saint Lawrence River (in the southeast), where lowlands host much of Canada's population.

Canada occupies a major northern portion of North America, sharing land borders with the contiguous United States to the south and the U.S. state of Alaska to the northwest, stretching from the Atlantic Ocean in the east to the Pacific Ocean in the west; to the north lies the Arctic Ocean. By total area (including its waters), Canada is the second largest country in the world—after Russia—and largest on the continent. By land area, it ranks fourth.[66] Since 1925, Canada has claimed the portion of the Arctic between 60°W and 141°W longitude,[67] but this claim is not universally recognized. The northernmost settlement in Canada (and the world) is Canadian Forces Station (CFS) Alert on the northern tip of Ellesmere Island—latitude 82.5°N—just 817 kilometres (450 nautical miles, 508 miles) from the North Pole.[68] Canada has the longest coastline in the world: 243,000 kilometres (151,000 miles).[69]

The population density, 3.5 inhabitants per square kilometre (9.1/sq mi), is among the lowest in the world.[70] The most densely populated part of the country is the Quebec City-Windsor Corridor, (Southern Quebec - Southern Ontario) along the Great Lakes and Saint Lawrence River in the southeast.[71]

To the north of this region is the broad Canadian Shield, an area of rock scoured clean by the last ice age—thinly soiled, rich in minerals, and dotted with lakes and rivers. Canada by far has more lakes than any other country and has much of the world's fresh water.[72][73]

A Maritime scene at Peggys Cove, Nova Scotia, which has long been sustained by the Atlantic fishery.

In eastern Canada, most people live in large urban centres on the flat Saint Lawrence Lowlands. The Saint Lawrence River widens into the world's largest estuary before flowing into the Gulf of Saint Lawrence. The gulf is bounded by Newfoundland to the north and the Maritimes to the south. The Maritimes protrude eastward along the Appalachian Mountain range, from northern New England and the Gaspé Peninsula of Quebec. New Brunswick and Nova Scotia are divided by the Bay of Fundy, which experiences the world's largest tidal variations. Ontario and Hudson Bay dominate central Canada. West of Ontario, the broad, flat Canadian Prairies spread toward the Rocky Mountains, which separate them from British Columbia.

In northwestern Canada, the Mackenzie River flows from the Great Slave Lake to the Arctic Ocean. A tributary of a tributary of the Mackenzie is the South Nahanni River, which is home to Virginia Falls, a waterfall about twice as high as Niagara Falls.

Moraine Lake in Banff National Park, Alberta.

Northern Canadian vegetation tapers from coniferous forests to tundra to the Arctic barrens in the far north. The northern Canadian mainland is ringed with a vast archipelago containing some of the world's largest islands.

Average winter and summer high temperatures across Canada vary depending on the location. Winters can be harsh in many regions of the country, particularly in the interior and Prairie provinces, which experience a continental climate, where daily average temperatures are near −15 °C (5 °F) but can drop below −40 °C (−40 °F) with severe wind chills.[74] In noncoastal regions, snow can cover the ground almost six months of the year (more in the north). Coastal British Columbia is an exception; it enjoys a temperate climate, with a mild and rainy winter.

On the east and west coast, average high temperatures are generally in the low 20s °C (70s °F), while between the coasts, the average summer high temperature ranges from 25 to 30 °C (75 to 85 °F), with occasional extreme heat in some interior locations exceeding 40 °C (104 °F).[75][76] For a more complete description of climate across Canada, see Environment Canada's Website.[77]

Canada is also geologically active, having many earthquakes and potentially active volcanoes, notably Mount Meager, Mount Garibaldi, Mount Cayley, and the Mount Edziza volcanic complex.[78] The volcanic eruption of Tseax Cone in 1775 caused a catastrophic disaster, killing 2,000 Nisga'a people and the destruction of their village in the Nass River valley of northern British Columbia; the eruption produced a 22.5-kilometre (14.0 mi) lava flow, and according to legend of the Nisga'a people, it blocked the flow of the Nass River.[79]

Economy

Main articles: Economy of Canada, Economic history of Canada, and Agriculture in Canada
Canadian banknotes, depicting (top to bottom) Wilfrid Laurier, John A. Macdonald, Queen Elizabeth II, William Lyon Mackenzie King, and Robert Borden.

Canada is one of the world's wealthiest nations, with a high per capita income, and is a member of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) and the G8. It is one of the world's top ten trading nations.[80] Canada is a mixed market,[81] ranking lower than the U.S. but higher than most western European nations on the Heritage Foundation's index of economic freedom.[82] Since the early 1990s, the Canadian economy has been growing rapidly, with low unemployment and large government surpluses on the federal level. Today, Canada resembles the U.S. in its market-oriented economic system, pattern of production, and high living standards.[7] As of February 2009, Canada's national unemployment rate was 7.77%. Provincial unemployment rates vary from a low of 3.6% in Alberta to a high of 14.6% in Newfoundland and Labrador.[83] According to the Forbes Global 2000 list of the world's largest companies in 2008, Canada had 69 companies in the list, ranking 5th next to France.[84] As of 2008, Canada’s total government debt burden is the lowest in the G8. The OECD projects that Canada's net debt-to-GDP ratio will decline to 19.5% in 2009, less than half of the projected average of 51.9% for all G8 countries. According to these projections, Canada's debt burden will have fallen over 50 percentage points from the peak in 1995, when it was the second highest in the G8.[85]

In the past century, the growth of the manufacturing, mining, and service sectors has transformed the nation from a largely rural economy into one primarily industrial and urban. As with other first world nations, the Canadian economy is dominated by the service industry, which employs about three quarters of Canadians.[86] However, Canada is unusual among developed countries in the importance of the primary sector, with the logging and oil industries being two of Canada's most important.

Canada is one of the few developed nations that are net exporters of energy.[7] Atlantic Canada has vast offshore deposits of natural gas and large oil and gas resources are centred in Alberta. The vast Athabasca Oil Sands give Canada the world's second-largest oil reserves, behind Saudi Arabia.[87] In Quebec, British Columbia, Newfoundland & Labrador, New Brunswick, Ontario, Manitoba, and Yukon, hydroelectricity is a cheap and clean source of renewable energy.

Canada is one of the world's most important suppliers of agricultural products, with the Canadian Prairies one of the most important suppliers of wheat, canola, and other grains.[88] Canada is the world's largest producer of zinc and uranium and a world leader in many other natural resources such as gold, nickel, aluminium, and lead;[89] many towns in the northern part of the country, where agriculture is difficult, exist because of a nearby mine or source of timber. Canada also has a sizable manufacturing sector centred in southern Ontario and Quebec, with automobiles and aeronautics representing particularly important industries.

Representatives of the Canadian, Mexican, and United States governments sign NAFTA in 1992.

Economic integration with the United States has increased significantly since World War II. This has prompted Canadian nationalists to worry about cultural and economic autonomy in an age of globalization as American television shows, movies, and corporations have become ubiquitous.[90] The Automotive Products Trade Agreement in 1965 opened the borders to trade in the auto manufacturing industry. In the 1970s, concerns over energy self-sufficiency and foreign ownership in the manufacturing sectors prompted Pierre Trudeau's Liberal government to set up the National Energy Program (NEP) and Foreign Investment Review Agency (FIRA).[91] In the 1980s, Brian Mulroney's Progressive Conservatives abolished the NEP and changed the name of FIRA to Investment Canada in order to encourage foreign investment. The Canada-United States Free Trade Agreement (FTA) of 1988 eliminated tariffs between the two countries, while North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) expanded the free trade zone to include Mexico in the 1990s. In the mid-1990s, the Liberal government under Jean Chrétien began posting annual budgetary surpluses and began steadily paying down the national debt. Since 2001, Canada has avoided economic recession and has maintained the best overall economic performance in the G8.[92] The global financial crisis hit Canada with a recession and could boost the country's unemployment rate to 10%.[93] Despite the global recession, Canada’s labour market is in need of hundreds of thousands of foreign workers, according to the Canadian Minister of Citizenship, Immigration and Multiculturalism.[94]

Demographics

Main articles: Demographics of Canada, List of cities in Canada, Ethnic groups in Canada, and Immigration to Canada
Largest Metropolitan Areas of Canada
view • talk • edit

Toronto
Toronto
Vancouver
Vancouver
Calgary
Calgary
Quebec city
Quebec city


 Rank Core City Province Pop. Rank Core City Province Pop.

Montreal
Montreal
Ottawa
Ottawa
Edmonton
Edmonton
Winnipeg
Winnipeg
1 Toronto Ontario 5,813,149 11 Kitchener Ontario 451,235
2 Montreal Quebec 3,868,831 12 St. Catharines Ontario 390,317
3 Vancouver British Columbia 2,116,581 13 Halifax Nova Scotia 372,858
4 Ottawa Ontario 1,130,761 14 Oshawa Ontario 330,594
5 Calgary Alberta 1,079,310 15 Victoria British Columbia 330,088
6 Edmonton Alberta 1,034,945 16 Windsor Ontario 323,342
7 Quebec City Quebec 715,515 17 Saskatoon Saskatchewan 233,923
8 Winnipeg Manitoba 694,668 18 Regina Saskatchewan 194,971
9 Hamilton Ontario 692,911 19 Sherbrooke Quebec 186,952
10 London Ontario 457,720 20 St. John's Newfoundland and Labrador 181,113
Canada 2006 Census

Canada's 2006 census counted a total population of 31,612,897, an increase of 5.4% since 2001.[95] Population growth is from immigration and, to a lesser extent, natural growth. About three-quarters of Canada's population live within 150 kilometres (90 mi) of the United States border.[96] A similar proportion live in urban areas concentrated in the Quebec City-Windsor Corridor (notably the Greater Golden Horseshoe, including Toronto and area, Montreal, and Ottawa), the BC Lower Mainland (consisting of the region surrounding Vancouver), and the Calgary-Edmonton Corridor in Alberta.[97]

According to the 2006 census, there are 43 ethnic origins that at least 100,000 people in Canada claim in their background.[98]

The largest ethnic group is English (21%), followed by French (15.8%), Scottish (15.2%), Irish (13.9%), German (10.2%), Italian (5%), Chinese (4%), Ukrainian (3.6%), and First Nations (3.5%). Approximately one third of respondents identified their ethnicity as "Canadian."[99] Canada's aboriginal population is growing almost twice as fast as the Canadian average, and 3.8% of Canada's population claimed aboriginal identity in 2006. Also, 16.2% of the population belonged to non-aboriginal visible minorities.

In 2006, 51.0% of Vancouver's population and 46.9% of Toronto's population were visible minorities.[100][101] In March 2005, Statistics Canada projected that people of non-European origins will constitute a majority in both Toronto and Vancouver by 2012.[102] According to Statistics Canada's forecasts, the number of visible minorities in Canada is expected to double by 2017. A survey released in 2007 reveals that virtually 1 in 5 Canadians (19.8%) are foreign born.[103] Nearly 60% of new immigrants hail from Asia (including the Middle East).[103]

Canada has the highest per capita immigration rate in the world,[104] driven by economic policy and family reunification; Canada also accepts large numbers of refugees. In 2009, between 240,000 and 265,000 new migrants are expected to arrive in Canada.[105][106] Newcomers settle mostly in the major urban areas of Toronto, Vancouver, and Montreal. In the 2006 census, there were 5,068,100 people considered to belong to a visible minority, making up 16.2% of the population. Between 2001 and 2006, the visible minority population rose by 27.2 %.[107][108]

In common with many other developed countries, Canada is experiencing a demographic shift towards an older population, with more retirees and fewer people of working age. In 2006, the average age of the civilian population was 39.5 years.[109] The census results also indicate that despite an increase in immigration since 2001 (which gave Canada a higher rate of population growth than in the previous intercensal period), the aging of Canada's population did not slow in the period.

Support for religious pluralism is an important part of Canada's political culture. According to the 2001 census,[110] 77.1% of Canadians identify as being Christians; of this, Catholics make up the largest group (43.6% of Canadians). The largest Protestant denomination is the United Church of Canada. About 16.5% of Canadians declare no religious affiliation, and the remaining 6.3% are affiliated with religions other than Christianity, of which the largest is Islam, numbering 1.9%, followed by Judaism at 1.1%.

Canadian provinces and territories are responsible for education. Each system is similar, while reflecting regional history, culture and geography.[111] The mandatory school age ranges between 5–7 to 16–18 years,[111] contributing to an adult literacy rate that is 99%.[7] Postsecondary education is also administered by provincial and territorial governments, who provide most of the funding; the federal government administers additional research grants, student loans, and scholarships. In 2002, 43% of Canadians aged between 25 and 64 had postsecondary education; for those aged 25 to 34, the postsecondary education rate reaches 51%.[112]

Culture

Main articles: Culture of Canada, National symbols of Canada, Sport in Canada, and Music of Canada
A Kwakwaka'wakw totem pole and traditional "big house" in Victoria, British Columbia.

Canadian culture has historically been influenced by British, French, and Aboriginal cultures and traditions. It has also been influenced heavily by American culture because of its proximity and migration between the two countries. The great majority of English speaking immigrants to Canada between 1755–1815 were Americans from the Lower Thirteen Colonies who were drawn there by promises of land or exiled because of their loyalty to Britain during the American War for Independence. American media and entertainment are popular, if not dominant, in English Canada; conversely, many Canadian cultural products and entertainers are successful in the U.S. and worldwide.[113] Many cultural products are marketed toward a unified "North American" or global market.

The creation and preservation of distinctly Canadian culture are supported by federal government programs, laws, and institutions such as the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation (CBC), the National Film Board of Canada (NFB), and the Canadian Radio-television and Telecommunications Commission (CRTC).[114]

Canada is a geographically vast and ethnically diverse country. Canadian culture has also been greatly influenced by immigration from all over the world. Many Canadians value multiculturalism and see Canadian culture as being inherently multicultural.[27] Multicultural heritage is the basis of Section 27 of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms.

Hockey game, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec (1901).

National symbols are influenced by natural, historical, and First Nations sources. Particularly, the use of the maple leaf as a Canadian symbol dates back to the early 18th century and is depicted on its current and previous flags, the penny, and on the coat of arms.[115] Other prominent symbols include the beaver, Canada Goose, Common Loon, the Crown, the RCMP,[115] and more recently, the totem pole and Inukshuk.

Canada's official national sports are hockey in the winter and lacrosse in the summer.[116] Hockey is a national pastime and the most popular spectator sport in the country. It is also the most popular sport Canadians play, with 1.65 million active participants in 2004.[117] Canada's six largest metropolitan areas—Toronto, Montreal, Vancouver, Ottawa, Calgary, and Edmonton—have franchises in the National Hockey League (NHL), and there are more Canadian players in the league than from all other countries combined. After hockey, other popular spectator sports include curling and football; the latter is played professionally in the Canadian Football League (CFL). Golf, baseball, skiing, soccer, volleyball, and basketball are widely played at youth and amateur levels,[117] but professional leagues and franchises are not as widespread.

Canada hosted several high-profile international sporting events, including the 1976 Summer Olympics, the 1988 Winter Olympics, and the 2007 FIFA U-20 World Cup. Canada will be the host country for the 2010 Winter Olympics in Vancouver and Whistler, British Columbia.[118][119]

Language

Main articles: Spoken languages of Canada, Official bilingualism in Canada, Canadian English, and Canadian French
The population of Quebec City, Quebec is mainly French-speaking, with a small English-speaking population.

Canada's two official languages are English and French. Official bilingualism in Canada is law, defined in the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms, the Official Languages Act, and Official Language Regulations; it is applied by the Commissioner of Official Languages. English and French have equal status in federal courts, Parliament, and in all federal institutions. The public has the right, where there is sufficient demand, to receive federal government services in either English or French, and official-language minorities are guaranteed their own schools in all provinces and territories.[120]

English and French are the mother tongues of 59.7% and 23.2% of the population respectively,[121] and the languages most spoken at home by 68.3% and 22.3% of the population respectively.[122] 98.5% of Canadians speak English or French (67.5% speak English only, 13.3% speak French only, and 17.7% speak both).[123] English and French Official Language Communities, defined by First Official Language Spoken, constitute 73.0% and 23.6% of the population respectively.[124]

Although 85% of French-speaking Canadians live in Quebec, there are substantial Francophone populations in Ontario, Alberta, and southern Manitoba, with an Acadian population in the northern and southeastern parts of New Brunswick constituting 35% of that province's population, as well as concentrations in southwestern Nova Scotia, on Cape Breton Island, and through central and western Prince Edward Island. Ontario has the largest French-speaking population outside Quebec. The Charter of the French Language in Quebec makes French the official language in Quebec, and New Brunswick is the only province to have a statement of official bilingualism in its constitution.[125] Other provinces have no official languages as such, but French is used as a language of instruction, in courts, and for other government services in addition to English. Manitoba, Ontario, and Quebec allow for both English and French to be spoken in the provincial legislatures, and laws are enacted in both languages. In Ontario, French has some legal status but is not fully co-official. Several aboriginal languages have official status in Northwest Territories. Inuktitut is the majority language in Nunavut, and one of three official languages in the territory.

Non-official languages are significant in Canada, with over five million people listing one as a first language. Some of the most common non-official first languages include Chinese (mainly Cantonese) (853,745 first-language speakers), Italian (469,485), German (438,080), and Punjabi (271,220).[121]

International rankings

Organization Survey Ranking
State of World Liberty Project State of World Liberty Index[126] 3 out of 159
United Nations Development Programme Human Development Index 3 out of 180
A.T. Kearney/Foreign Policy Magazine Globalization Index 2007 8 out of 72
IMD International World Competitiveness Yearbook 2008 8 out of 55
The Economist The World in 2005 – Worldwide quality-of-life index, 2005 14 out of 111
Yale University/Columbia University Environmental Sustainability Index, 2005 (pdf) 6 out of 146
Reporters Without Borders Worldwide Press Freedom Index 2008 13 out of 173
Transparency International Corruption Perceptions Index 2008 9 out of 180
Heritage Foundation/The Wall Street Journal Index of Economic Freedom, 2008 7 out of 157
The Economist Global Peace Index 11 out of 140
Fund for Peace/ForeignPolicy.com Failed States Index, 2007 168 out of 177[127]
World Economic Forum Soundness of banks (2008-2009) 1 out of 134[128]

See also

Canada portal

Notes

  1. ^ "Official Languages Act" (PDF). Revised Statutes of NWT, 1988. Department of Justice, Northwest Territories. http://www.justice.gov.nt.ca/PDF/ACTS/Official_Languages.pdf. Retrieved on 2008-11-08. 
  2. ^ http://www12.statcan.gc.ca/english/census06/data/highlights/ethnic/pages/Page.cfm?Lang=E&Geo=PR&Code=01&Data=Count&Table=2&StartRec=1&Sort=3&Display=All&CSDFilter=5000
  3. ^ http://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/2006/dp-pd/prof/92-591/details/Page.cfm?Lang=E&Geo1=PR&Code1=01&Geo2=PR&Code2=01&Data=Count&SearchText=Canada&SearchType=Begins&SearchPR=01&B1=All&GeoLevel=&GeoCode=01
  4. ^ Queen and Canada - The Royal Household. http://www.royal.gov.uk/MonarchAndCommonwealth/Canada/Canada.aspx Retrieved 03/28/2009
  5. ^ "Canada's population clock". Statistics Canada. http://www.statcan.ca/english/edu/clock/population.htm. 
  6. ^ a b c d "Canada". International Monetary Fund. http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2009/01/weodata/weorept.aspx?sy=2006&ey=2009&scsm=1&ssd=1&sort=country&ds=.&br=1&c=156&s=NGDPD%2CNGDPDPC%2CPPPGDP%2CPPPPC%2CLP&grp=0&a=&pr.x=80&pr.y=17. Retrieved on 2009-04-22. 
  7. ^ a b c d e Central Intelligence Agency (2006-05-16). "The World Factbook: Canada". Central Intelligence Agency. https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/ca.html. Retrieved on 2007-05-06. 
  8. ^ "Territorial evolution" (html/pdf). Atlas of Canada. Natural Resources Canada. http://atlas.nrcan.gc.ca/site/english/maps/reference/anniversary_maps/terr_evol. Retrieved on 2007-10-09. "In 1867, the colonies of Canada, Nova Scotia and New Brunswick are united in a federal state, the Dominion of Canada...." 
  9. ^ "Canada: History" (html/pdf). Country Profiles. Commonwealth Secretariat. http://www.thecommonwealth.org/YearbookInternal/145152/history/. Retrieved on 2007-10-09. "The British North America Act of 1867 brought together four British colonies ... in one federal Dominion under the name of Canada." 
  10. ^ Hillmer, Norman; W. David MacIntyre. "Commonwealth" (html). Canadian Encyclopedia. Historica Project. http://thecanadianencyclopedia.com/index.cfm?PgNm=TCE&Params=A1ARTA0001798. Retrieved on 2007-10-09. "With CONFEDERATION in 1867, Canada became the first federation in the British Empire ..." 
  11. ^ Trigger, Bruce G.; Pendergast, James F. (1978). "Saint-Lawrence Iroquoians". Handbook of North American Indians Volume 15. Washington: Smithsonian Institution. pp. 357–361. OCLC 58762737. 
  12. ^ Jacques Cartier (1545). "Relation originale de Jacques Cartier". Tross (1863 edition). http://www.gutenberg.org/files/12356/12356-h/12356-h.htm. Retrieved on 2007-02-23. 
  13. ^ Martin, Robert (1993). "1993 Eugene Forsey Memorial Lecture: A Lament for British North America". The Machray Review (Prayer Book Society of Canada). http://www.prayerbook.ca/library/machray/issue5/machray5d.htm. Retrieved on 2008-11-05. "Strictly speaking, the official name of the new country was, simply, "Canada," but usage sanctioned "Dominion of Canada.". 
  14. ^ Hodgetts, J. E.; Gerald Hallowell (2004). "Dominion". Oxford Companion to Canadian History. Toronto: Oxford University Press. p. 183. ISBN 0195415590. "The title conferred on Canada by the preamble to the Constitution Act, 1867, whereby the provinces declare 'their desire to be federally united into one Dominion under the Crown of the United Kingdom.'" 
  15. ^ "Canada Day". Department of Canadian Heritage. http://www.pch.gc.ca/progs/cpsc-ccsp/jfa-ha/canada_e.cfm. Retrieved on 2008-11-06. "On October 27, 1982, July 1st which was known as "Dominion Day" became "Canada Day"." 
  16. ^ Cinq-Mars, J. (2001). "On the significance of modified mammoth bones from eastern Beringia" (PDF). The World of Elephants - International Congress, Rome. http://www.cq.rm.cnr.it/elephants2001/pdf/424_428.pdf. Retrieved on 2006-05-14. 
  17. ^ Wright, J.V (September 27, 2001). "A History of the Native People of Canada: Early and Middle Archaic Complexes". Canadian Museum of Civilization Corporation. http://www.civilization.ca/archeo/hnpc/npvol04e.html. Retrieved on 2006-05-14. 
  18. ^ "John Cabot". Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Encyclopædia Britannica. http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9018457/John-Cabot. 
  19. ^ "Cartier, Jacques". World book Encyclopedia. World Book, Inc.. ISBN 071660101X. 
  20. ^ "Wars on Our Soil, earliest times to 1885". http://www.civilization.ca/cwm/gallery1/revolution2_e.html. Retrieved on 2006-08-21. 
  21. ^ Moore, Christopher (1994). The Loyalist: Revolution Exile Settlement. Toronto: McClelland & Stewart. ISBN 0-7710-6093-9. 
  22. ^ David Mills. "Durham Report". Historica Foundation of Canada. http://www.canadianencyclopedia.ca/index.cfm?PgNm=TCE&Params=A1ARTA0002473. Retrieved on 2006-05-18. 
  23. ^ "The Canadian Encyclopedia: Responsible Government". Historica Foundation of Canada. http://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.com/index.cfm?PgNm=TCE&Params=A1ARTA0006792. "This key principle of responsibility, whereby a government needed the confidence of Parliament, originated in established British practice. But its transfer to British N America gave the colonists control of their domestic affairs, since a governor would simply follow the advice (i.e., policies) of responsible colonial ministers." 
  24. ^ "Canadian Cofederation: Responsible Government". Library and Archives Canada. http://www.collectionscanada.gc.ca/confederation/023001-2974-e.html. "The Executive Council would be governed by the leader of the political party that held an elected majority in the Legislative Assembly. That same leader would also appoint the members of the Executive Council. The governor would therefore be forced to accept these "ministers" and if the majority of the members of the Legislative Assembly voted against them, they would have to resign. The governor would also be obliged to ratify laws concerning the internal affairs of the colony once these laws had been passed to the Legislative Assembly." 
  25. ^ Farthing, John (1957). Freedom Wears a Crown. Toronto: Kingswood House. ASIN B0007JC4G2. 
  26. ^ a b Stacey, C.P. (1948). History of the Canadian Army in the Second World War. Queen's Printer. 
  27. ^ a b Bickerton, James & Gagnon, Alain-G & Gagnon, Alain (Eds). (2004). Canadian Politics (4th ed.). Orchard Park, NY: Broadview Press. ISBN 1-55111-595-6. 
  28. ^ Bélanger, Claude (August 3, 2000). "Quiet Revolution". Quebec History. Marionopolis College, Montreal. http://faculty.marianopolis.edu/c.belanger/quebechistory/events/quiet.htm. Retrieved on 2008. 
  29. ^ a b Dickinson, John Alexander; Young, Brian (2003). A Short History of Quebec (3rd ed.). Montreal: McGill-Queen's University Press. ISBN 0-7735-2450-9. 
  30. ^ "Constitution Act, 1867; IV". Queen's Printer for Canada. http://laws.justice.gc.ca/en/const/c1867_e.html#legislative. "There shall be One Parliament for Canada, consisting of the Queen, an Upper House styled the Senate, and the House of Commons." 
  31. ^ "Parliament of Canada: About the Governor General of Canada". Queen's Printer for Canada. http://www2.parl.gc.ca/Parlinfo/pages/govgeneral.aspx?Language=E&Menu=GG. "Parliament is the legislative branch of Government, composed of the Sovereign (represented by the Governor General), the Senate and the House of Commons." 
  32. ^ "Constitution Act 1867; III.9". Queen's Printer for Canada. http://laws.justice.gc.ca/en/const/index.html. "The Executive Government and Authority of and over Canada is hereby declared to continue and be vested in the Queen." 
  33. ^ Stewart, David (2008-11-02). "Introduction: Principles of the Westminster Model of Parliamentary Democracy". Module on Parliamentary Democracy. Commonwealth Parliamentary Association. http://www.athabascau.ca/govn/parliamentary_democracy/chapters/index.html. Retrieved on 2008-11-02. "Parliamentary government is also associated with the presence of a dual executive. There is a ceremonial executive, which possesses some constitutional powers as well as performing symbolic functions, and a political executive, which performs the basic governing functions (see Magstadt and Schotten, 1999; O'Neill, 1999). In the British model, the Crown now serves as the ceremonial executive (or head of state) while the Prime Minister is head of government." 
  34. ^ Heard, Andrew (2008). "The Executive I: Crown and Cabinet". Canadian Government (Course notes). Simon Fraser University. http://www.sfu.ca/~aheard/221/221_class_sched.html. Retrieved on 2008-11-02. "o symbolic executive: Queen (de jure head of state) ... Governor General (de facto head of state); o political executive: Canada: Privy Council, including cabinet; Prime Minister (head of government) primus inter pares; cabinet/ministry membership (32 members including the PM); o permanent executive (bureaucracy): departments, agencies, & civil service" 
  35. ^ Nelson Education Ltd.. "The Executive". Introduction to Canadian Government and Politics. Nelson Education Ltd.. http://polisci.nelson.com/executive.html. Retrieved on 2008-11-02. "The symbolic executive is composed of the Queen, who is the legal head of state of Canada, and her representatives, who fulfill the monarch's daily duties in Canada." 
  36. ^ Heritage Canada (2005-04-21). "The Queen and Canada: 53 Years of Growing Together". Heritage Canada. http://www.pch.gc.ca/royalvisit2005/53_e.cfm. Retrieved on 2006-05-14. 
  37. ^ Governor General of Canada (2005-12-06). "Role and Responsibilities of the Governor General". Governor General of Canada. http://www.gg.ca/gg/rr/index_e.asp. Retrieved on 2006-05-14. 
  38. ^ Commonwealth Secretariat (1999). "Women in Politics". Commonwealth Secretariat. http://books.google.ca/books?id=3_7kSP6mH7QC&pg=PA38&lpg=PA38&dq=%22symbolic+executive%22++%2BCanada&source=web&ots=pe65csjNt2&sig=hEbdDbCSi5weSi2BjBkbf5M-ZCw&hl=en. Retrieved on 2008-11-02. "However, the British monarch continues to serve as Canada's symbolic executive, appointing a representative, the Governor-General, on the advice of the Canadian Prime Minister." 
  39. ^ Ray T. Donahue. "Diplomatic Discourse: International Conflict at the United Nations". Greenwood Publishing Group. http://books.google.ca/books?id=zolqhgKCQ5IC&pg=PA204&lpg=PA204&dq=%22symbolic+power%22+monarch+canada&source=web&ots=IXqQnZ7Hg8&sig=afyqd8EUlF4YUlhr5kNKqkYHAtM&hl=en. "As Head of State ... Elizabeth II has no political power, only symbolic power" 
  40. ^ "Canada's System of Justice: The Canadian Constitution". Department of Justice Canada. http://www.justice.gc.ca/eng/dept-min/pub/just/05.html. "The executive power in Canada is vested in the Queen. In this democratic society, this is only a constitutional convention, as the real executive power rests with the Cabinet." 
  41. ^ Mahler, Gregory (1985). "Parliament and Congress: Is the Grass Greener on the Other Side?". Canadian Parliamentary Review. http://www.parl.gc.ca/Infoparl/english/issue.htm?param=115&art=643. Retrieved on 2008-11-02. "In Canada (and indeed most parliamentary democracies in the world today), the majority of challenges to legislative power which develop no longer come from the ceremonial executive (the Crown), but from the political executive, the government of the day." 
  42. ^ "Responsible Government: Clarifying Essentials, Dispelling Myths and Exploring Change". Canada School of Public Service. http://www.ccmd-ccg.gc.ca/Research/publications/html/resgov/rg5_e.html. "Under the constitutional convention of responsible government, the powers of the Crown are exercised by Ministers, both individually and collectively." 
  43. ^ Joseph Magnet. "Separation of Powers in Canada". Constitutional Law of Canada. University of Ottawa Faculty of Law. http://www.uottawa.ca/constitutional-law/Division%20of%20Powers%20Topics%20-%20Separation%20of%20Powers.htm. "... democratic principles dictate that the bulk of the Governor General's powers be exercised in accordance with the wishes of the leadership of that government, namely the Cabinet. So the true executive power lies in the Cabinet." 
  44. ^ "By Executive Decree: The Cabinet". Library and Archives Canada. http://www.collectionscanada.gc.ca/executive-decree/023004-2040-e.html. "The Cabinet as selected and directed by the prime minister constitutes the active seat of executive power in Canada." 
  45. ^ W.A. Matheson. "Prime Minister". The Canadian Encyclopedia. http://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.com/index.cfm?PgNm=TCE&Params=A1ARTA0006474. "The prime minister is the chief minister and effective head of the executive in a parliamentary system ..." 
  46. ^ "Responsible Government and Checks and Balances: The Crown". http://www.ccmd-ccg.gc.ca/Research/publications/html/resgov/rg9_e.html#crown. "Responsible government means that the Crown no longer has the prerogative to select or remove Ministers. They are selected and removed by the first Minister—the Prime Minister." 
  47. ^ "The Prime Minister". By Executive Decree. National Archives of Canada. http://www.collectionscanada.gc.ca/executive-decree/023004-2030-e.html. "While the modern governor general has only a nominal influence on the operation of the Canadian government, the prime minister's influence is decisive." 
  48. ^ "Responsible Government and Checks and Balances: The Crown". Responsible Government: Clarifying Essentials, Dispelling Myths and Exploring Change. Canada School of Public Service. http://www.ccmd-ccg.gc.ca/Research/publications/html/resgov/rg9_e.html#crown. "Ministers are thereby accountable to the Prime Minister who, in the Canadian tradition, has the sole power to appoint and dismiss them." 
  49. ^ "By Executive Decree: The Governor General". Library and Archives Canada. http://www.collectionscanada.gc.ca/executive-decree/023004-2020-e.html. "The governor general holds formal executive power within the Queen's Privy Council for Canada, and signs orders-in-council." 
  50. ^ "The Constitution Act, 1982". Department of Justice Canada. http://laws.justice.gc.ca/en/const/annex_e.html#VI. ""52.(1) The Constitution of Canada is the supreme law of Canada, and any law that is inconsistent with the provisions of the Constitution is, to the extent of the inconsistency, of no force or effect." 
  51. ^ Department of Justice. "Constitution Acts 1867 to 1982". Department of Justice, Canada. http://laws.justice.gc.ca/en/const/index.html. Retrieved on 2006-05-14. 
  52. ^ "The Constitution Act, 1982". Department of Justice Canada. http://laws.justice.gc.ca/en/const/annex_e.html#IV.I. ""38.(1)" 
  53. ^ Assistant Deputy Minister (Public Affairs). "The National Defence family". Department of National Defence. http://www.forces.gc.ca/site/about/family_e.asp. Retrieved on 2006-05-14. 
  54. ^ Assistant Deputy Minister (Public Affairs). "Canadian Forces Equipment". Department of National Defence. http://www.forces.gc.ca/site/Reports/cds_report/anxd_e.asp. Retrieved on 2006-05-14. 
  55. ^ Government of Canada (2005) (PDF). Canada's international policy statement : a role of pride and influence in the world. Ottawa: Government of Canada. ISBN 0-662-68608-X. http://www.dfait-maeci.gc.ca/cip-pic/IPS/IPS-Overview.pdf. 
  56. ^ Cooper, Andrew Fenton; Higgot, Richard A.; Nossal, Kim R. (1993). Relocating Middle Powers: Australia and Canada in a Changing World Order. Vancouver: UBC Press. ISBN 0-7748-0450-5. http://books.google.com/books?id=Hw3laaTpOiIC&pg=PP1&lpg=PP1&vq=reaching+out&dq=Canada+middle+power&psp=s&sig=0009fdoEDuy42hFgXuCmmymun6c. 
  57. ^ Canadian Broadcasting Corporation (2006). [CBC.ca - The Greatest Canadian - Top Ten Greatest Canadians - Lester B. Pearson at www.cbc.ca "Lester B. Pearson"]. CBC.ca. CBC.ca - The Greatest Canadian - Top Ten Greatest Canadians - Lester B. Pearson at www.cbc.ca. Retrieved on 2006-05-22. 
  58. ^ Morton, Desmond (1999). A Military History of Canada. Toronto: McClelland & Stewart. p. 258. ISBN 0-7710-6514-0. 
  59. ^ CBC News (2008-02-21). "Harper unveils new Afghan motion with 2011 end date". Canadian Broadcasting Corporation. http://www.cbc.ca/canada/story/2008/02/21/harper-speech.html. Retrieved on 2009-05-13. 
  60. ^ "Cost of the Afghanistan mission 2001-2011". Canada's Engagement in Afghanistan. Government of Canada. 2009-02-25. http://www.afghanistan.gc.ca/canada-afghanistan/news-nouvelles/2009/2009_02_25a.aspx?lang=eng. Retrieved on 2009-05-13. "The incremental cost of the mission to the Government of Canada (GoC) in Afghanistan from 2001 to 2011 is currently estimated at approximately $11.3 billion, excluding post-2011 disability and health care costs for veterans." 
  61. ^ Western Hemisphere Travel Initiative at www.cbsa-asfc.gc.ca
  62. ^ "Rich Nations Launch Vaccine Pact." Reuters. February 10, 2007.
  63. ^ Blomfield, Adrian (2007-08-03). "Russia claims North Pole with Arctic flag stunt". Telegraph. http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/main.jhtml?xml=/news/2007/08/01/wpole101.xml. Retrieved on 2007-09-10. 
  64. ^ "Western Canada". MSN Encarta Dictionary. Bell Inc., Microsoft Corporation and their contributors.. http://ca.encarta.msn.com/dictionary_1861712296_561511545/prevpage.html. Retrieved on 2008-11-05. 
  65. ^ "A Look at Canada". Minister of Public Worksand Government Services Canada. 2007. http://www.cic.gc.ca/english/resources/publications/look/index.asp. Retrieved on 2008-11-05. 
  66. ^ "World Factbook: Area Country Comparison Table". http://education.yahoo.com/reference/factbook/countrycompare/area/3d.html;_ylt=As1XMsN8kgSx746VWazy_s7PecYF. 
  67. ^ National Resources Canada (2004-04-06). "Territorial Evolution, 1927". National Resources Canada. http://atlas.gc.ca/site/english/maps/historical/territorialevolution/1927/1. Retrieved on 2006-05-14. 
  68. ^ National Defence Canada (2006-08-15). "Canadian Forces Station (CFS) Alert". National Defence Canada. http://www.img.forces.gc.ca/org/cfiog/alert_e.asp. Retrieved on 2006-10-03. 
  69. ^ Natural Resources Canada (2006-12-19). "CoastWeb: Facts about Canada's coastline". Natural Resources Canada. http://gsc.nrcan.gc.ca/coast/facts_e.php. Retrieved on 2007-07-13. 
  70. ^ WorldAtlas.com (2006-02). "Countries of the World (by lowest population density)". WorldAtlas.com. http://worldatlas.com/aatlas/populations/ctydensityl.htm. Retrieved on 2006-05-16. 
  71. ^ railwaypeople.com (2006). "Quebec–Windsor Corridor Jet Train, Canada". railwaypeople.com. http://www.railwaypeople.com/rail-projects/quebec-windsor-corridor-jet-train-canada-30.html. Retrieved on 2006-10-03. 
  72. ^ The Atlas of Canada (2004-04-02). "Drainage patterns". National Resources Canada. http://atlas.nrcan.gc.ca/site/english/maps/freshwater/distribution/drainage/1. Retrieved on 2006-05-18. 
  73. ^ Encarta (2006). "Canada". Microsoft Corporation. http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761563379/Canada.html. Retrieved on 2006-06-12. 
  74. ^ The Weather Network. "Statistics, Regina SK". The Weather Network. http://www.theweathernetwork.ca/weather/stats/pages/C02072.htm?CASK0261. Retrieved on 2006-05-18. 
  75. ^ The Weather Network. "Statistics: Vancouver Int'l, BC". The Weather Network. http://www.theweathernetwork.ca/weather/stats/pages/C02096.htm?CABC0308. Retrieved on 2006-05-18. 
  76. ^ The Weather Network. "Statistics: Toronto Pearson Int'l". The Weather Network. http://www.theweathernetwork.ca/weather/stats/pages/C02017.htm?CAON0696. Retrieved on 2006-05-18. 
  77. ^ Environment Canada (2004-02-25). "Canadian Climate Normals or Averages 1971–2000". Environment Canada. http://www.climate.weatheroffice.ec.gc.ca/climate_normals/index_e.html. Retrieved on 2006-05-18. 
  78. ^ Etkin, David; Haque, C.E. and Brooks, Gregory R. (2003-04-30). An Assessment of Natural Hazards and Disasters in Canada. Springer. pp. 569, 582, 583. ISBN 978-1402011795. http://books.google.com/books?id=kaJz_SNNuKMC&pg=PA569&lpg=PA569&dq=wells+%22gray+clearwater%22+volcanic+field+earthquakes&source=web&ots=3-cpYxu0uM&sig=OsW3GQ5BQLaHN3HzRdzQfObnx6A. 
  79. ^ "Tseax Cone". Catalogue of Canadian volcanoes. Geological Survey of Canada. 2005-08-19. http://gsc.nrcan.gc.ca/volcanoes/cat/volcano_e.php?id=svb_tsx_107. Retrieved on 2008-07-29. 
  80. ^ WTO (2008-04-17). "Latest release". WTO. http://www.wto.org/english/news_e/pres08_e/pr520_e.htm. Retrieved on 2008-07-03. 
  81. ^ "PBS, Commanding Heights, map of the world's economic systems". http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/commandingheights/hi/timemap/ti.html. Retrieved on 2008-01-31. 
  82. ^ The Heritage Foundation (2008). "Index of Economic Freedom". The Heritage Foundation. http://www.heritage.org/research/features/index/country.cfm?id=Canada. Retrieved on 2009-01-09. 
  83. ^ Statistics Canada (2006-08-04). "Latest release from Labour Force Survey". Statistics Canada. http://www.statcan.ca/english/Subjects/Labour/LFS/lfs-en.htm. Retrieved on 2006-08-04. 
  84. ^ forbes (2008-04-02). "Latest release". forbes. http://www.forbes.com/lists/2008/18/biz_2000global08_The-Global-2000-Canada_10Rank.html. Retrieved on 2006-07-01. 
  85. ^ "Budget 2008: Budget Plan—Annex 1". http://www.budget.gc.ca/2008/plan/ann1-eng.asp. 
  86. ^ "Employment by Industry". Statistics Canada. 2007-01-04. http://www40.statcan.ca/l01/cst01/econ40.htm. 
  87. ^ Clarke, Tony; Campbell, Bruce; Laxer, Gordon (2006-03-10). "US oil addiction could make us sick". Parkland Institute. http://www.ualberta.ca/PARKLAND/research/perspectives/LaxerClarkeCampbellMar06OpEd.htm. Retrieved on 2006-05-18. 
  88. ^ The Canadian Encyclopedia (2006). "Agriculture and Food: Export markets". Historical Foundation of Canada. http://www.canadianencyclopedia.ca/index.cfm?PgNm=TCE&Params=J1SEC80771. Retrieved on 2006-05-18. 
  89. ^ The Canadian Encyclopedia (2006). "Canadian Mining". Historica Foundation of Canada. http://www.canadianencyclopedia.ca/index.cfm?PgNm=TCE&Params=A1SEC824436. Retrieved on 2006-05-18. 
  90. ^ Granatstein, J.L. (1997). Yankee Go Home: Canadians and Anti-Americanism. Toronto: HarperCollins. ISBN 0-00-638541-9. 
  91. ^ Norman Hillmer. "Foreign Investment Review Agency". The Canadian Encyclopedia. Historica Foundation. http://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.com/index.cfm?PgNm=TCE&Params=A1ARTA0002896. 
  92. ^ Chretien, Jean (2003-12-04). "Notes for an Address by Prime Minister Jean Chrétien on the Occasion of the Commonwealth Business Forum". Privy Council Office, Government of Canada. http://www.pco-bcp.gc.ca/default.asp?Language=E&Page=archivechretien&Sub=Speeches&Doc=commonwealthbusinessforum.20031204_e.htm. Retrieved on 2006-08-07. 
  93. ^ Jobless rate to peak at 10%: TD. Financial Post. March 13, 2009.
  94. ^ Canada to maintain immigration levels in 2009, Muchmor Canada Magazine, January 19, 2009
  95. ^ Beauchesne, Eric (2007-03-13). "We are 31,612,897". National Post. http://www.canada.com/nationalpost/financialpost/story.html?id=73b94aac-08f0-477f-a72a-b8b640f6658f&k=90795. Retrieved on 2007-03-13. 
  96. ^ Hillmer, Norman (2005-01-25). "Canada World View – Issue 24". Foreign Affairs and International Trade Canada. http://www.international.gc.ca/canada-magazine/issue24/01-title-en.asp. Retrieved on 2006-10-03. 
  97. ^ Statistics Canada (2001). "Urban-rural population as a proportion of total population, Canada, provinces, territories and health regions". Statistics Canada. http://www.statcan.gc.ca/pub/82-221-x/00503/t/th/4062283-eng.htm. Retrieved on 2009-04-23. 
  98. ^ "Ethnocultural Portrait of Canada Highlight Tables, 2006 Census". http://www12.statcan.ca/english/census06/data/highlights/ethnic/pages/Page.cfm?Lang=E&Geo=PR&Code=01&Data=Count&Table=2&StartRec=1&Sort=3&Display=All&CSDFilter=5000. 
  99. ^ "Ethnocultural Portrait of Canada Highlight Tables, 2006 Census". http://www12.statcan.ca/english/census06/data/highlights/ethnic/pages/Page.cfm?Lang=E&Geo=PR&Code=01&Data=Count&Table=2&StartRec=1&Sort=3&Display=All&CSDFilter=5000. Retrieved on 2008-06-30. 
  100. ^ http://www12.statcan.ca/census-recensement/2006/dp-pd/prof/92-591/Details/Page.cfm?Lang=E&Geo1=CSD&Code1=5915022&Geo2=PR&Code2=59&Data=Count&SearchText=Vancouver&SearchType=Begins&SearchPR=01&B1=All&GeoLevel=&GeoCode=5915022
  101. ^ http://www12.statcan.ca/census-recensement/2006/dp-pd/prof/92-591/Details/Page.cfm?Lang=E&Geo1=CSD&Code1=3520005&Geo2=PR&Code2=35&Data=Count&SearchText=Toronto&SearchType=Begins&SearchPR=01&B1=All&GeoLevel=&GeoCode=3520005
  102. ^ "Canadian People—Learn About Canada's People". http://www.canadastatistics.info/canadian-people.html. 
  103. ^ a b The Daily, Tuesday, December 4, 2007. 2006 Census: Immigration, citizenship, language, mobility and migration
  104. ^ Benjamin Dolin and Margaret Young, Law and Government Division (2004-10-31). "Canada's Immigration Program". Library of Parliament. http://www.parl.gc.ca/information/library/PRBpubs/bp190-e.htm. Retrieved on 2006-11-29. 
  105. ^ Global recession unlikely to impact on Canadian immigration
  106. ^ Canadian Government to Grant 265,000 Residents Visas in 2009, Canada Migration Bureau
  107. ^ "Visible minorities pass 5-million mark for first time". http://www.ctv.ca/servlet/ArticleNews/story/CTVNews/20080402/main_census_080402/20080402?hub=Canada&s_name=. 
  108. ^ "2006 Census: Ethnic origin, visible minorities, place of work and mode of transportation". http://www.statcan.ca/Daily/English/080402/d080402a.htm. 
  109. ^ Statistics Canada 2006 Census: Portrait of the Canadian Population in 2006
  110. ^ Statistics Canada (2005-01-25). "Population by religion, by provinces, and territories". Statistics Canada. http://www40.statcan.ca/l01/cst01/demo30a.htm. Retrieved on 2006-05-14. 
  111. ^ a b Council of Ministers of Canada. "General Overview of Education in Canada". Education@Canada. http://www.educationcanada.cmec.ca/EN/EdSys/over.php. Retrieved on 2006-05-22. 
  112. ^ Department of Finance (2005-11-14). "Creating Opportunities for All Canadians". Department of Finance Canada. http://www.fin.gc.ca/ec2005/agenda/agc4e.html. Retrieved on 2006-05-22. 
  113. ^ Blackwell, John D. (2005). "Culture High and Low". International Council for Canadian Studies World Wide Web Service. http://www.iccs-ciec.ca/blackwell.html#culture. Retrieved on 2006-03-15. 
  114. ^ National Film Board of Canada (2005). "Mandate of the National Film Board". http://www.nfb.ca/atonf/organisation.php?v=h&lg=en. Retrieved on 2006-03-15. 
  115. ^ a b Canadian Heritage (2002). Symbols of Canada. Ottawa, ON: Canadian Government Publishing. ISBN 0-660-18615-2. 
  116. ^ "National Sports of Canada Act (1994)". Consolidated Statutes and Regulations. Department of Justice. http://lois.justice.gc.ca/en/N-16.7/251603.html. Retrieved on 2006-07-20. 
  117. ^ a b Conference Board of Canada (December 2004). "Survey: Most Popular Sports, by Type of Participation, Adult Population". Strengthening Canada: The Socio-economic Benefits of Sport Participation in Canada—Report August 2005. Sport Canada. http://www.pch.gc.ca/progs/sc/pubs/socio-eco/tab2_tab_e.cfm. Retrieved on 2006-07-01. 
  118. ^ The Vancouver Organizing Committee for the 2010 Olympic and Paralympic Winter Games (2006). "Vancouver 2010". www.vancouver2010.com. http://www.vancouver2010.com/en. Retrieved on 2006-10-01. 
  119. ^ Canadian Soccer Association (2006). "FIFA U-20 World Cup Canada 2007". canadasoccer.com. http://www.canadasoccer.com/eng/U20WC_2007/index.asp?top=banner_legs&sub=9. Retrieved on 2006-10-01. 
  120. ^ "Federal Legislation on Official Languages". Office of the Commissioner of Official Languages. 2003-09-01. http://www.ocol-clo.gc.ca/legislation.asp?Lang=English. 
  121. ^ a b Statistics Canada (2005-01-27). "Population by mother tongue, by province and territory". Statistics Canada. http://www40.statcan.ca/l01/cst01/demo11a.htm. Retrieved on 2006-05-14. 
  122. ^ "First Official Language Spoken (7) and Sex (3) for Population, for Canada, Provinces, Territories and Census Metropolitan Areas 1 , 2001 Census – 20% Sample Data". Statistics Canada, 2001 Census of Population. http://www12.statcan.ca/english/census01/products/standard/themes/RetrieveProductTable.cfm?Temporal=2001&PID=55535&APATH=3&GID=431515&METH=1&PTYPE=55440&THEME=41&FOCUS=0&AID=0&PLACENAME=0&PROVINCE=0&SEARCH=0&GC=0&GK=0&VID=0&VNAMEE=&VNAMEF=&FL=0&RL=0&FREE=0. Retrieved on 2007-03-23. 
  123. ^ Statistics Canada (2005-01-27). "Population by knowledge of official language, by province and territory". Statistics Canada. http://www40.statcan.ca/l01/cst01/demo15a.htm. Retrieved on 2006-05-14. 
  124. ^ Statistics Canada (2005-01-27). "Population by knowledge of official language, by province and territory". Statistics Canada. http://www12.statcan.ca/english/census01/products/standard/themes/RetrieveProductTable.cfm?Temporal=2001&PID=55673&APATH=3&GID=517770&METH=1&PTYPE=55496&THEME=41&FOCUS=0&AID=0&PLACENAME=0&PROVINCE=0&SEARCH=0&GC=99&GK=NA&VID=0&VNAMEE=&VNAMEF=&FL=0&RL=0&FREE=0. Retrieved on 2006-05-14. 
  125. ^ "Canadian Heritage". Canadian Heritage. http://www.canadianheritage.gc.ca/progs/lo-ol/pubs/mythes/english/abc.html. 
  126. ^ "The 2006 State of World Liberty Index". www.stateofworldliberty.org. http://www.stateofworldliberty.org/report/rankings.html. Retrieved on 2007-12-07. 
  127. ^ larger number indicates sustainability
  128. ^ Canada's banks ranked the soundest, World Economic Forum, In the 2009 report Canada is ranked 1st, URL accessed 10 October 2008

References

Origin and history of the name
  • Rayburn, Alan (2001). Naming Canada: Stories of Canadian Place Names (2nd ed.). Toronto: University of Toronto Press. ISBN 0-8020-8293-9. 
History
Government and law
Foreign relations and military
  • Cook, Tim (2005). "Quill and Canon: Writing the Great War in Canada". American Review of Canadian Studies 35 (3): 503+. 
  • Eayrs, James (1980). In Defence of Canada. Toronto: University of Toronto Press. ISBN 0-8020-2345-2. 
  • Fox, Annette Baker (1996). Canada in World Affairs. East Lansing: Michigan State University Press. ISBN 0-87013-391-8. 
  • Appel, Molot Maureen (Spring-Fall 1990). "Where Do We, Should We, Or Can We Sit? A Review of the Canadian Foreign Policy Literature". International Journal of Canadian Studies. 
  • Morton, Desmond; Granatstein, J.L. (1989). Marching to Armageddon: Canadians and the Great War 1914–1919. Toronto: Lester & Orpen Dennys. ISBN 0-88619-209-9. 
  • Morton, Desmond (1999). A Military History of Canada. Toronto: McClelland & Stewart. ISBN 0-7710-6514-0. 
  • Morton, Desmond (1993). When Your Number's Up: The Canadian Soldier in the First World War. Toronto: Random House of Canada. ISBN 0-394-22288-1. 
  • Rochlin, James (1994). Discovering the Americas: The Evolution of Canadian Foreign Policy towards Latin America. Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press. ISBN 0-7748-0476-9. 
Provinces and territories
  • Bumsted, J. M. (2004). History of the Canadian Peoples. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-541688-0. 
Geography and climate
  • Natural Resources Canada (2005). National Atlas of Canada. Ottawa: Information Canada. ISBN 0-7705-1198-8. 
  • Stanford, Quentin H. (ed.) (2003). Canadian Oxford World Atlas (5th ed.). Toronto: Oxford University Press (Canada). ISBN 0-19-541897-2. 
Economy
Demography and statistics
Language
Culture

External links

Find more about Canada on Wikipedia's sister projects:
Definitions from Wiktionary

Textbooks from Wikibooks
Quotations from Wikiquote
Source texts from Wikisource
Images and media from Commons
News stories from Wikinews

Learning resources from Wikiversity
Government
Crown corporations
Other